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The conversion between NPN and PNP sensors isn't done with a physical "converter" but rather by understanding the difference and using an external component to interface them.

There are a few proven ways to let a device run from USB when present and fall back to the battery when not—without browning out the system or back-feeding the USB port.

Here’s a clear, reliable way to switch a relay with a transistor (works for microcontrollers, sensors, or logic outputs).

Using two capacitors (0.1µF and 0.01µF) in parallel in a circuit (often seen near power supply pins of ICs or sensors) is a common practice to improve noise filtering and stabilize voltage.

When laying out electronic components on a PCB (Printed Circuit Board), several critical factors must be considered to ensure optimal performance, reliability, and manufacturability.

Here’s a detailed comparison of common serial communication buses (I²C, I²S, SPI, UART, JTAG, CAN, SDIO, and GPIO) in terms of their purpose, key features, and typical use cases

Using two diodes to protect a chip's input/output (I/O) pins is a common technique to prevent damage from overvoltage, undervoltage, or reverse voltage conditions.

A MOS transistor (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET) can be used to implement a level conversion circuit, which translates signals between different voltage domains (e.g., 3.3V ↔ 5V, 1.8V ↔ 3.3V).